Improvement after a supplement is not the same as a comparative result
Start with the comparison. A before-and-after change alone cannot isolate the contribution of an ingredient.
Ginkgo
Selected research topic
Cognition
Some measured outcomes improved in human comparison studies. Read these findings with their populations and conditions.
Findings from a combination study cannot be attributed to this ingredient alone.
Some findings concern patients or people with a deficiency.
- Publications for this topic
- 19
- Human comparison publications
- 2
- Publications needing review
- 15
Findings in the studies
executive functioning
- A better result than the comparison group was reported.General population · Single ingredient
Measurement and study conditions
- Study type
- Randomized controlled trial: subjects were randomly assigned to groups for comparison.
- Study population
- Human participants · General population
- Ingredients tested
- Single ingredient
- How results were compared
- Results were compared between groups. · Study comparison: Ginkgo biloba versus placebo; female subgroup result
- Additional measurement information
- Secondary outcome
- Measurement time
- Not stated
Longer-term memory
- A better result than the comparison group was reported.
What the comparison group used was not confirmed.
Single ingredientMeasurement and study conditions
- Study type
- Randomized controlled trial: subjects were randomly assigned to groups for comparison.
- Study population
- Human participants · Participant characteristics were not confirmed.
- Ingredients tested
- Single ingredient
- How results were compared
- Results were compared between groups.
- Measurement time
- Not confirmed.
Memory performance
Other human research, including observational studies and reviews
- A change was reported, but the comparison could not be confirmed.Single ingredient
Measurement and study conditions
- Study type
- Other evidence
- Study population
- Human participants · Participant characteristics were not confirmed.
- Ingredients tested
- Single ingredient
- Measurement time
- Not confirmed.
MMSE score
Other human research, including observational studies and reviews
- An association was observed. This does not establish that the ingredient caused the change.
Several ingredients were tested together, so this ingredient’s individual effect is unknown.
Patient group · Combination study · 24 monthsMeasurement and study conditions
- Study type
- Observational study
- Study population
- Human participants · Patient group
- Ingredients tested
- Ingredient combination
- How results were compared
- Comparison unclear · Study comparison: within-group baseline to 24-month follow-up
- Additional measurement information
- Primary outcome
- Measurement time
- 24 months
This result is held for interpretation. That does not mean research found no effect.
Outcome groups needing additional review (13)
- ADAS-Cog · Distinct papers needing additional review: 1Evidence criteria check: 1
- Cognition · Distinct papers needing additional review: 2Evidence criteria check: 2
- cognitive abilities · Distinct papers needing additional review: 1Evidence criteria check: 1
- Cognitive function · Distinct papers needing additional review: 2Evidence criteria check: 2
- cognitive performance · Distinct papers needing additional review: 1Evidence criteria check: 1
- learning and memory impairment · Distinct papers needing additional review: 1Evidence criteria check: 1
- long-term memory · Distinct papers needing additional review: 1Evidence criteria check: 1
- Montreal Cognitive Assessment score · Distinct papers needing additional review: 1Evidence criteria check: 1
- objective measure of cognitive function · Distinct papers needing additional review: 1Evidence criteria check: 1
- retention of original memory · Distinct papers needing additional review: 1Evidence criteria check: 1
- SKT · Distinct papers needing additional review: 1Evidence criteria check: 1
- SKT score · Distinct papers needing additional review: 1Evidence criteria check: 1
- SKT scores · Distinct papers needing additional review: 1Evidence criteria check: 1
One paper can appear under multiple measured outcomes or review reasons, so these counts should not be added together.
Representative outcome and study details
Human studies reported between-group improvement in executive functioning.
Single-ingredient studies · Human studies · between-group comparison
1 publications linked to this result
- Route, form, dose, or population details are incomplete, so the findings cannot be confirmed as directly comparable.
Data coverage and detailed study classifications
Paper counts are separated by research topic below. One paper may contribute to multiple findings.
Analysis status: Public-ready
Ingredient analysis date:
How the grade was determined: C
The 8.4 evidence score includes 1 independent human studies and 1 clinical studies in the representative benefit area. The C tier remains conservative because of limited repetition across independent human clinical studies, too few clinical findings with an explicit effect direction.
The grade is based mainly on the research area with the most evidence. It does not mean the same result was found in other areas.
Papers linked to this ingredient overall: 115
Papers linked to this topic 19 · distinct papers 19 · papers with a confirmed human comparison 2 · papers needing additional review 15
A publication may appear in more than one count. These numbers should not be added. Ingredient-wide papers, topic-linked papers, and sources in outcome groups use different scopes. Adding source counts may count the same paper more than once.
- ADAS-Cog: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
- Cognition: Sources represented in this measurement group: 2 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
- cognitive abilities: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
- Cognitive function: Sources represented in this measurement group: 2 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
- cognitive performance: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
- executive functioning: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 1
- learning and memory impairment: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
- long-term memory: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
- Longer-term memory: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 1
- Memory performance: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
- MMSE score: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
- Montreal Cognitive Assessment score: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
- objective measure of cognitive function: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
- retention of original memory: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
- SKT: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
- SKT score: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
- SKT scores: Sources represented in this measurement group: 1 · Distinct papers with human comparisons for this outcome: 0
What the research found
executive functioning
The study reported improvement in this measurement.
Controlled study in people · Single ingredient · General population
Between-group comparison
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
Longer-term memory
The study reported improvement in this measurement.
Controlled study in people · Single ingredient · Unspecified population
Between-group comparison
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
MMSE score
An association was observed. This does not establish that the ingredient caused the change.
Observational study · Ingredient combination · Patient group
Several ingredients were used together. This does not establish the effect of this ingredient alone or synergy.
The comparison could not be confirmed.
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
Memory performance
A change was reported, but the comparison could not be confirmed.
Other evidence · Single ingredient · Unspecified population
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
ADAS-Cog
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Meta-analysis · Single ingredient · Patient group
Between-group comparison
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Review overlap with primary papers is unknown; counts stay separate.
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
Cognition
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Meta-analysis · Single ingredient · Patient group
Between-group comparison
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Review overlap with primary papers is unknown; counts stay separate.
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
cognition
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Review · Single ingredient · Patient group
The comparison could not be confirmed.
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Review overlap with primary papers is unknown; counts stay separate.
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
cognitive abilities
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Review · Unknown intervention · Patient group
The comparison could not be confirmed.
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Review overlap with primary papers is unknown; counts stay separate.
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
cognitive function
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Meta-analysis · Single ingredient · Patient group
Between-group comparison
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Review overlap with primary papers is unknown; counts stay separate.
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
Cognitive function
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Review · Single ingredient · Patient group
The comparison could not be confirmed.
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Review overlap with primary papers is unknown; counts stay separate.
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
cognitive performance
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Review · Ingredient combination · Patient group
Several ingredients were used together. This does not establish the effect of this ingredient alone or synergy.
The comparison could not be confirmed.
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Review overlap with primary papers is unknown; counts stay separate.
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
learning and memory impairment
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Animal study · indirect · Single ingredient · Patient group
This finding comes from animal or cell research. It does not establish the same effect in people.
The comparison could not be confirmed.
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
long-term memory
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Animal study · indirect · Ingredient combination · Patient group
This finding comes from animal or cell research. It does not establish the same effect in people.
Several ingredients were used together. This does not establish the effect of this ingredient alone or synergy.
The comparison could not be confirmed.
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
Montreal Cognitive Assessment score
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Controlled study in people · Single ingredient · Patient group
The comparison could not be confirmed.
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
objective measure of cognitive function
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Review · Single ingredient · General population
Between-group comparison
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Review overlap with primary papers is unknown; counts stay separate.
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
retention of original memory
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Animal study · indirect · Ingredient combination · Patient group
This finding comes from animal or cell research. It does not establish the same effect in people.
Several ingredients were used together. This does not establish the effect of this ingredient alone or synergy.
The comparison could not be confirmed.
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
SKT
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Meta-analysis · Single ingredient · Patient group
Between-group comparison
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Review overlap with primary papers is unknown; counts stay separate.
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
SKT score
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Meta-analysis · Single ingredient · Patient group
Between-group comparison
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Review overlap with primary papers is unknown; counts stay separate.
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
SKT scores
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Meta-analysis · Single ingredient · Patient group
Between-group comparison
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Review overlap with primary papers is unknown; counts stay separate.
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
Unspecified measured outcome
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Controlled study in people · Ingredient combination · Unspecified population
Several ingredients were used together. This does not establish the effect of this ingredient alone or synergy.
Between-group comparison
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
Unspecified measured outcome
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Review · Ingredient combination · Patient group
Several ingredients were used together. This does not establish the effect of this ingredient alone or synergy.
The comparison could not be confirmed.
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Review overlap with primary papers is unknown; counts stay separate.
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
Unspecified measured outcome
The study needs further checking before its result can be interpreted.
Review · Unknown intervention · Unspecified population
The comparison could not be confirmed.
Analysis coverage and paper counts
1 paper · 1 measured outcome
1 papers held from direction counts
Review overlap with primary papers is unknown; counts stay separate.
Direction counts are distinct papers within each row. Outcome contributions count endpoint results, so one paper may contribute more than once.
How to read research findings
How should I read research findings?
Research guidesNo clear difference and an uninterpretable result are different
A reported null comparison contains a result. An abstract without an interpretable comparison leaves a question unresolved.
Paper counts and study counts are different
Count original research separately from research that reanalyzes it. Publication volume is neither replication nor a quality rating.
Side effects and combination findings
Findings from this ingredient alone are shown separately from those involving another supplement or medication.
No reviewed caution rules are available yet. Reported caution findings are shown below.
Findings to review with care
Side effects reported for the ingredient alone are separated from findings involving another supplement or medication.
Side effects reported with this ingredient alone
Symptoms or adverse events reported in studies without another active ingredient.
liver injury1 papers
Hepatotoxicity observed in rodent studies of a commercially available unfinished GbE product.Animal studies · Animal studyembryotoxicity1 papers
Ginkgo biloba leaf extract contains ginkgolic acids that cause embryotoxicity, cytotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and enzyme inhibition.Cell studies · Systematic reviewneurotoxicity1 papers
A limited number of studies indicate that ginkgolic acids may have adverse effects on the nervous system.Human studies · Systematic reviewnephrotoxicity1 papers
A limited number of studies indicate that ginkgolic acids may exhibit nephrotoxicity.Human studies · Systematic reviewhepatotoxicity1 papers
Ginkgolic acids can induce significant hepatic damage by promoting cellular apoptosis, oxidative stress, and disruption of metabolic processes.Human studies · Systematic reviewendotoxins and ginkgolic acids toxicity1 papers
The review reports that endotoxins and ginkgolic acids present in Ginkgo biloba are identified as dominant toxic components.Human studies · Systematic reviewDropout due to adverse events1 papers
Meta-analysis showed dropout rates due to side effects were significantly lower with Ginkgo biloba than placebo (OR = 1.72, 95% CI [1.06, 2.80]), indicating a favorable safety profile.Human studies · Meta-analysisdermatotoxicity1 papers
A limited number of studies indicate that ginkgolic acids may have adverse effects on the skin.Human studies · Systematic reviewCautions reported with another supplement or medication
These studies reported worsening outcomes, reduced absorption, or other cautions with combined use. They do not predict an individual's outcome.
CilostazolCoadministration of Ginkgo biloba with cilostazol significantly potentiated the prolongation of bleeding time compared to individual doses.